吞噬作用(phagocytosis)又称胞吃作用(cellular eating)。吞入物通常是较大的颗粒, 如微生物或较大的细胞残片; 形成的囊泡叫吞噬体, 直径一般大于250nm。吞噬作用只限于几种特殊的细胞类型，如变形虫(Amoebae)和一些单细胞的真核生物通过吞噬作用从周围环境中摄取营养。
在大多数高等动物细胞中, 吞噬作用是一种保护措施而非摄食的手段。高等动物具有一些特化的吞噬细胞, 包括巨噬细胞(macrophages)和中性粒细胞(neutrophils)。它们通过吞噬菌体摄取和消灭感染的细菌、病毒以及损伤的细胞、衰老的红细胞等。
吞噬作用形成的内吞泡叫吞噬体。吞噬是一种需要信号触发的过程。被吞噬的颗粒必须同吞噬细胞的表面结合, 但并不是能结合的颗粒都能够被吞噬。吞噬细胞表面有特化的受体, 被激活的受体向细胞内传递吞噬信号。
吞噬作用是生物体最古老的，也是最基本的防卫机制之一。对于其要消灭的对象无特异性，在免疫学中称之为非特异性免疫作用。中性粒细胞和单核细胞的吞噬作用很强，嗜酸性粒细胞虽然游走性很强，但吞噬能力较弱。白细胞可以通过毛细血管的内皮间隙，从血管内渗出，在组织间隙中游走。它们吞噬侵入的细菌、病毒、寄生虫等病原体和一些坏死的组织碎片。一般认为，白细胞能向异物处聚集，并将其吞噬，这是因为白细胞有趋化性。由于细菌体或死亡的细胞所产生的化学刺激，诱发白细胞向该处移动。组织发炎时产生一种活性多肽，也是白细胞游动的诱发物质之一。
中性粒细胞内的颗粒为溶酶体，内含多种水解酶，能消化其所摄取的病原体或其他异物。一般一个白细胞处理5～25个细菌后，本身也就死亡。死亡的白细胞集团和细菌分解产物构成脓液。单核细胞由骨髓生成，在血液内仅生活3～4天，即进入肝、脾、肺和淋巴等组织转变为巨噬细胞。变为巨噬细胞后，体积加大，溶酶体增多，吞噬和消化能力也增强。但其吞噬对象主要为进入细胞内的致病物，如病毒、疟原虫和细菌等。巨噬细胞还参与激活淋巴细胞的特异免疫功能。此外，它还具有识别和杀伤肿瘤细胞，清除衰老与损伤细胞的作用。
细胞吞噬感染的病毒、细菌或其它一些颗粒等称为异体吞噬。溶酶体的吞噬作用是指外来的有害物质被吞入细胞后, 即形成由膜包裹的吞噬小体(phagosome), 初级溶酶体很快同吞噬体融合形成次级溶酶体, 此时溶酶体中的底物是从细胞外摄取的,故为异噬性的溶酶体, 在异噬性的溶酶体中吞噬物被酶水解；水解后, 那些可溶性小分子可通过溶酶体膜进入胞质溶胶, 为细胞再利用或成为废物被排出。所以溶酶体的吞噬作用可保护细胞免受细菌与病毒等的侵染, 是细胞的防御功能所必需的。
多细胞的动物具有专门的吞噬细胞，即巨噬细胞(macrophages)和中性粒细胞(neutrophils)担任机体中的保护防御任务。
在细胞的吞噬过程中，如果吞进来的是液体则称为吞饮作用，这种作用形成的内吞泡也是通过与溶酶体融合将液体中的物质水解。吞噬作用也是细胞获取营养的一种方式, 细胞通过内吞作用将一些营养物质包进内吞体, 最后与溶酶体融合, 在溶酶体酶的作用下, 将吞进的营养物质消化形成可直接利用的小分子用于合成代谢。一些单细胞的生物更是靠吞噬作用来获取营养。
吞噬作用也包括对衰老的、进入编程死亡的细胞的吞噬。如占成人细胞总数1/4的红细胞仅能成活120天, 因此人体每天必须清除大量衰老的红细胞，这主要是靠吞噬作用即溶酶体酶的消化作用来完成。
Phagocytosis (from Ancient Greek φαγεῖν (phagein) , meaning "to devour", κύτος, (kytos) , meaning " cell", and -osis, meaning "process") is the cellular process of engulfing solid particles by the cell membrane to form an internal phagosome by phagocytes and protists. Phagocytosis is a specific form of endocytosis involving the vesicular internalization of solid such as bacteria, and is, therefore, distinct from other forms of endocytosis such as the vesicular internalization of various liquids. Phagocytosis is involved in the acquisition of nutrients for some cells, and, in the immune system, it is a major mechanism used to remove pathogens and cell debris. Bacteria, dead tissue cells, and small mineral particles are all examples of objects that may be phagocytosed.
The process is homologous to eating only at the level of single-celled organisms; in multicellular animals, the process has been adapted to eliminate debris and pathogens, as opposed to taking in fuel for cellular processes, except in the case of the Trichoplax.
Phagocytosis in mammalian immune cells is activated by attachment to Pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPS), which leads to NF-κB activation. Opsonins such as C3b and antibodies can act as attachment sites and aid phagocytosis of pathogens.
Engulfment of material is facilitated by the actin-myosin contractile system. The phagosome of ingested material is then fused with the lysosome, leading to degradation.
Degradation can be oxygen-dependent or oxygen-independent.
Oxygen-dependent degradation depends on NADPH and the production of reactive oxygen species. Hydrogen peroxide and myeloperoxidase activate a halogenating system, which leads to the destruction of bacteria.
Oxygen-independent degradation depends on the release of granules, containing proteolytic enzymes such as defensins, lysozyme, and cationic proteins. Other antimicrobial peptides are present in these granules, including lactoferrin, which sequesters iron to provide unfavourable growth conditions for bacteria.
It is possible for cells other than dedicated phagocytes (such as dendritic cells) to engage in phagocytosis.
Following apoptosis, the dying cells need to be taken up into the surrounding tissues by macrophages in a process called Efferocytosis. One of the features of an apoptotic cell is the presentation of a variety of intracellular molecules on the cell surface, such as Calreticulin, Phosphatidylserine (From the inner layer of the plasma membrane), Annexin A1, and oxidised LDL. These molecules are recognised by receptors on the cell surface of the macrophage such as the Phosphatidylserine Receptor, or by soluble (free floating) receptors such as Thrombospondin 1, Gas-6, and MFG-E8, which themselves, then, bind to other receptors on the macrophage such as CD36 and Alpha-V Beta-3 Integrin. Additional information on phagocytosis of apoptotic cells could be found in the book: “Phagocytosis of dying cells: from molecular mechanisms to human diseases” (Eds DV Krysko and P Vandenabeele, 2009, Springer).
In many protists, phagocytosis is used as a means of feeding, providing part or all of their nourishment. This is called phagotrophic nutrition, as distinguished from osmotrophic nutrition, which takes place by absorption.
In some, such as amoeba, phagocytosis takes place by surrounding the target object with pseudopods, as in animal phagocytes. In humans, Entamoeba histolytica can phagocytose red blood cells. This process is known as "erythrophagocystosis", and is considered the only reliable way to distinguish Entamoeba histolytica from noninvasive species such as Entamoeba dispar.
Ciliates also engage in phagocytosis. In ciliates there is a specialized groove or chamber in the cell where phagocytosis takes place, called the cytostome or mouth.
The resulting phagosome may be merged with lysosomes containing digestive enzymes, forming a phagolysosome. The food particles will then be digested, and the released nutrients are diffused or transported into the cytosol for use in other metabolic processes.
Mixotrophy can involve phagotrophic nutrition and phototrophic nutrition.
